StuffThatMatters: Philosophy
In this era of the constant evolution of new-age movements, ranging from Iskon in the east to Scientology in the west, people are genuinely confused. Yes, like the sheer diversity of smartphone apps waiting to do your bidding, there are whole belief systems out there dying to grab your attention. Every path screams "_This is the true path! Join us!"_, and maybe they do provide solace to some people, if not all of their followers.
As rational organisms, we are always striving to make sense of the complexity that surrounds us.Why are we here, What's our purpose in this universe, and most importantly, How do we live properly and fruitfully, etc are the questions we humans (and our ancestors) have always asked ourselves. Strictly because of this, there developed a series of brilliant philosophies in Greece, following the death of Alexander the Great.
What were those philosophies?
These philosophies are usually regarded as Hellenistic philosophies, and they essentially began after the death of Alexander's tutor Aristotle, to be more precise. Before, philosophers like Plato, Aristotle and the pre-Socratics believed that philosophy should be used for making sense of the world around us - a tool for exploration of complex questions regarding the origin of the world, the nature of reality, and so on. But this all changed with Socrates, who shifted the focus of philosophy from metaphysics to ethics.
According to Socrates, philosophy should instead deal with more practical, down-to-earth questions - such as how should we live fruitfully, how can we maximize our potential as human beings, how to have a good life, and so on. This is what served as the motivation for the post-Socratic philosophers of the Hellenistic age, nearly all of whom traced their beginnings to Socrates.
Common Hellenistic philosophies
Of the Hellenistic philosophies, four were the chief contestants for king of the hill title, each of which aimed to provide ataraxia (freedom from disturbances), alongside a good, meaningful and happy life. These were:
I. Stoicism
Stoicism is derived from the word Stoa, which refers to the painted porch or colonnade, where the fathers of this philosophy used to gather. It was founded by Zeno of Citium, a merchant turned philosopher, who wanted to devise a practical philosophy of life that would answer the crucial questions. By far, Stoicism became the most important and successful of the Hellenistic philosophical schools, and became the de facto philosophy of the Roman intellectual majority, in the following years.
The Stoic ideal is the Sage, a physicial embodiment of the Stoic philosophy, who is untouched by anger or grief, familiar with and yet isolated from anguish and anxiety, whose actions resound with the will of the cosmos. Notable Stoics included the early fathers of Stoicism, such as Zeno, Cleanthes and Chrysippus, while later Stoics are usually more familiar because their writings survive till date. Seneca, Rufus, Epictetus and emperor Aurelius of Rome form the paragon of Roman Stoicism.
Salient teachings of Stoicism at a glance
1. Events and happenings don't affect us in any positive or negative way, rather we are affected by our judgements on them.
2. Only our choices, thoughts and judgements are up to us. We can choose not to be bothered even in the face of adversities.
3. The 'Self', in Stoicism, is our true nature. It is separate from the body, the senses and the thoughts. It is detached from all suffering, and is the impassive observer of everything.
4. The only good in the world is virtue, the state of living in perfect accordance with nature. The nature here refers both to the cosmic intelligence (called Logos) as well as our individual natures.
5. One is to nurture his/her mind constantly, and practice prosokeh or unfailing attention, to ensure that he/she doesn't stray away from the path of his/her philosophy. Stoicism is a living philosophy, and practical side of its teachings are as important as, if not more than, its theoretical side.
II. Epicureanism
Epicureanism is a rival philosophy that grew out of the teachings of , a notable thinker of the Hellenistic age. Although people confuse the Epicureans with pleasure-seeking hedonists, the hedonism is the Epicureans is far from the usual frenzy of pleasure-mongering that we witness today. Instead, Epicurus teaches us to liv a very simple lifestyle, where we live contended with very little.
Epicurus taught his disciples, and lived in harmony with them, in his house just outside Athens. The house had a garden attached, and thus the Epicurean school came to be known as The Garden.
Points of Epicureanism
1. Pleasure is the ultimate good, but there are two kinds of pleasure - kinetic pleasure (involving some sort of activity on our part) and static pleasure, which is just the absence of pain. Static pleasure is better than kinetic pleasure.
2. Pain and pleasure are the two Masters, and the natural tendency of man and beasts alike, is to go towards pleasure and away from pain.
3. All matter, including our bodies and souls, are made up of atoms. Therefore, there's no existence before birth, or following death. The atoms that make up our bodies, simply go and form something else after our deaths. Therefore, there's nothing to fear about death.
4. Friendship, and living in a commune, is the ultimate way to enjoy pleasures. A simple diet of bread and water can suffice for Epicurean students, but according to them, he is poor who dines alone.
5. Pain and pleasure are two sides of the same coin. What is the source of pleasure today, can cause us pain tomorrow. For example, something you love gives you pleasure, but its loss causes you pain.
III. Scepticism
Scepticism or Skepticism was developed by Pyrrho, who also served as its ultimate living embodiment. Sceptics were the ultimate doubters, who doubted their judgements, those of others, and even their own senses. However, weird as it may sound today, it was the way to peace for its followers.
Scepticism teaches us that we can't be certain about anything, no matter how certain or reasonable it may seem. - as long as there's room for doubt. Therefore, all external disturbances are reasonable and apparent appearances at best. By shifting our attention from such potentially false projections of our senses (i.e false impressions), the Pyrrhonic skeptics argued that ataraxia can be attained.
Scepticism at a glance
1. There is no way we can be sure regarding the truth of the things that appear before us. It is up to us to make the judgement, but since senses are flawed, we can't reasonably conclude that they are real.
2. Suspension of judgement, originally a Stoic development, has been incorporated into Scepticism. When we are unsure about the reality of anything, we should suspend our judgements on them.
3. Complete knowledge of anything relies on flawless perception of the external circumstances, which is impossible because of our limited and flawed senses. Therefore, complete knowledge is unattainable.
4. Even the thoughts are coloured by our perceptions, which can not be therefore relied upon.
5. By shifting our attention from potential sources of worry to a thoughtless, relaxed state of the mind, is the key to freedom from disturbances.
IV. Cynicism
Cynicism, in my humble opinion, is the most radical and extreme of these philosophies. It advocates a state of constant practice of one's philosophy, but in addition, the philosophy of Cynicism advocates complete mental detachment from the societal norms, standards, customs etc.
The name Cynicism is derived from the Greek work Kynikos, which literally refers to dogs. And in fact, the Cynics, like Crates and Diogenes, lived an existence that would be closer to that of the dogs than men. Diogenes famously resided inside a tub, masturbated in the open, ate scraps of food from the streets and even behaved like a dog when he was treated thus. Yet, Diogenes and Crates are regarded as the among the greatest of the Hellenistic philosophers.
Cyncism at a glance
1. Man is happier in his original state of nature, as opposed to in the artificial society created by man himself.
2. The way to happiness is to isolate the mind from the dictations of the society. To live happily, one must actively learn to detach himself from the demands, norms and standards of the society.
3. Man's true existence relies on very few things - sufficient food, a shelter and some garments. Everything else, be it jewels, fame or acceptance in the eyes of others, is additional, tne not worth the trouble.
4. The wise man is he, who has mentally isolated himself from the society. However, this shouldn't refer to physical isolation, because the Cynic can fully well live inside the human society.
5. The less you possess, the less you have to worry about. Thus, wealth and fame are the roots of much of our anxiety, worry and suffering.
Other Hellenistic schools
There were other Hellenistic schools of thought, such as Peripateticism (followers of Aristotle), Cyrenaicism (ultra-hedonists) etc but for most part, these schools were the ones that took the limelight.
Besides, the modern day sees a lot of activity with regard to Stoicism, Epicureanism and Scepticism, especially. I strive to be a Stoic myself, to be honest with you, and there are a wealth of resources available online, regarding how to live happily and meaningfully with the use of these ancient bits of wisdom.
In my humble opinion, man has realized that the standard, mainstream religions are not really the source of contentment or joy that they claim to be. That's why, we are once again switching back to the ancient philosophical wisdom.
After all, philosophy is indeed the love of wisdom. :)
Sources and acknowledgement
1. A little history of philosophy (Warburton)
2. Stoicism (John Sellar)
3. Stoic Handbook (Newstoa)
4. Philosophy for life and other dangerous situations (Evans)
5. A guide to a good life (William Irvine)
Image credits: Wikimedia, collaged by me using #GIMP
#Stoicism #Epicurus #philosophyofhappiness #philosophy #peace
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